Non-static member functions

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A non-static member function is a function that is declared in a member specification of a class without a static or friend specifier (see static member functions and friend declaration for the effect of those keywords). 

class S
{
    int mf1(); // non-static member function declaration
    void mf2() volatile, mf3() &&; // can have cv-qualifiers and/or a reference-qualifier
        // the declaration above is equivalent to two separate declarations:
        // void mf2() volatile;
        // void mf3() &&;
 
    int mf4() const { return data; } // can be defined inline
    virtual void mf5() final; // can be virtual, can use final/override
    S() : data(12) {} // constructors are member functions too
    int data;
};
 
int S::mf1() { return 7; } // if not defined inline, has to be defined at namespace

Constructors, destructors, and conversion functions use special syntaxes for their declarations. The rules described in this page may not apply to these functions. See their respective pages for details.

An explicit object member function is a non-static member function with an explicit object parameter.

(since C++23)

An implicit object member function is a non-static member function without an explicit object parameter (prior to C++23, this was the only kind of non-static member function, and hence referred to as "non-static member function" in the literature).

Explanation

Any function declarations are allowed, with additional syntax elements that are only available for non-static member functions: pure-specifiers, cv-qualifiers, ref-qualifiers, final and override specifiers(since C++11), and member initialization lists.

A non-static member function of class X may be called

1) For an object of type X using the class member access operator
2) For an object of a class derived from X
3) Directly from within the body of a member function of X
4) Directly from within the body of a member function of a class derived from X

Calling a non-static member function of class X on an object that is not of type X, or of a type derived from X invokes undefined behavior.

Within the body of a non-static member function of X, any id-expression e (e.g. an identifier) that resolves to a non-type non-static member of X or of a base class of X, is transformed to a member access expression (*this).e (unless it's already a part of a member access expression). This does not occur in template definition context, so a name may have to be prefixed with this-> explicitly to become dependent. 

struct S
{
    int n;
    void f();
};
 
void S::f()
{
    n = 1; // transformed to (*this).n = 1;
}
 
int main()
{
    S s1, s2;
    s1.f(); // changes s1.n
}

Within the body of a non-static member function of X, any unqualified-id that resolves to a static member, an enumerator or a nested type of X or of a base class of X, is transformed to the corresponding qualified-id: 

struct S
{
    static int n;
    void f();
};
 
void S::f()
{
    n = 1; // transformed to S::n = 1;
}
 
int main()
{
    S s1, s2;
    s1.f(); // changes S::n
}

Member functions with cv-qualifiers

An implicit object member function can be declared with a cv-qualifier sequence (const, volatile, or a combination of const and volatile), this sequence appears after the parameter list in the function declaration. Functions with different cv-qualifier sequences (or no sequence) have different types and so may overload each other.

In the body of a function with a cv-qualifier sequence, *this is cv-qualified, e.g. in a member function with const qualifier, only other member functions with const qualifier may be called normally. A member function without const qualifier may still be called if const_cast is applied or through an access path that does not involve this. 

#include <vector>
 
struct Array
{
    std::vector<int> data;
    Array(int sz) : data(sz) {}
 
    // const member function
    int operator[](int idx) const
    {                     // the this pointer has type const Array*
        return data[idx]; // transformed to (*this).data[idx];
    }
 
    // non-const member function
    int& operator[](int idx)
    {                     // the this pointer has type Array*
        return data[idx]; // transformed to (*this).data[idx]
    }
};
 
int main()
{
    Array a(10);
    a[1] = 1;  // OK: the type of a[1] is int&
    const Array ca(10);
    ca[1] = 2; // Error: the type of ca[1] is int
}

Member functions with ref-qualifier

An implicit object member function can be declared with no ref-qualifier, with an lvalue ref-qualifier (the token & after the parameter list) or the rvalue ref-qualifier (the token && after the parameter list). During overload resolution, an implicit object member function with a cv-qualifier sequence of class X is treated as follows:

  • no ref-qualifier: the implicit object parameter has type lvalue reference to cv-qualified X and is additionally allowed to bind rvalue implied object argument
  • lvalue ref-qualifier: the implicit object parameter has type lvalue reference to cv-qualified X
  • rvalue ref-qualifier: the implicit object parameter has type rvalue reference to cv-qualified X 
#include <iostream>
 
struct S
{
    void f() &  { std::cout << "lvalue\n"; }
    void f() && { std::cout << "rvalue\n"; }
};
 
int main()
{
    S s;
    s.f();            // prints "lvalue"
    std::move(s).f(); // prints "rvalue"
    S().f();          // prints "rvalue"
}

Note: unlike cv-qualification, ref-qualification does not change the properties of the this pointer: within an rvalue ref-qualified function, *this remains an lvalue expression.

(since C++11)

Virtual and pure virtual functions

A non-static member function may be declared virtual or pure virtual. See virtual functions and abstract classes for details.

Explicit object member functions

For a non-static non-virtual member function not declared with cv-qualifier or ref-qualifier, its first parameter, if not being a function parameter pack, can be an explicit object parameter (denoted with the prefixed keyword this): 

struct X
{
    void foo(this X const& self, int i); // same as void foo(int i) const &;
//  void foo(int i) const &; // Error: already declared
 
    void bar(this X self, int i); // pass object by value: makes a copy of “*this”
};

For member function templates, explicit object parameter allows deduction of type and value category, this language feature is called “deducing this”: 

struct X
{
    template<typename Self>
    void foo(this Self&&, int);
};
 
struct D : X {};
 
void ex(X& x, D& d)
{
    x.foo(1);       // Self = X&
    move(x).foo(2); // Self = X
    d.foo(3);       // Self = D&
}

This makes it possible to deduplicate const- and non-const member functions, see array subscript operator for an example.

Additionally, explicit object parameter deduces to the derived type, which simplifies CRTP: 

// a CRTP trait
struct add_postfix_increment
{
    template<typename Self>
    auto operator++(this Self&& self, int)
    {
        auto tmp = self; // Self deduces to "some_type"
        ++self;
        return tmp;
    }
};
 
struct some_type : add_postfix_increment
{
    some_type& operator++() { ... }
};

Inside the body of an explicit object member function, the this pointer cannot be used: all member access must be done through the first parameter, like in static member functions: 

struct C
{
    void bar();
 
    void foo(this C c)
    {
        auto x = this; // error: no this
        bar();         // error: no implicit this->
        c.bar();       // ok
    }
};

A pointer to an explicit object member function is an ordinary pointer to function, not a pointer to member: 

struct Y 
{
    int f(int, int) const&;
    int g(this Y const&, int, int);
};
 
auto pf = &Y::f;
pf(y, 1, 2);              // error: pointers to member functions are not callable
(y.*pf)(1, 2);            // ok
std::invoke(pf, y, 1, 2); // ok
 
auto pg = &Y::g;
pg(y, 3, 4);              // ok
(y.*pg)(3, 4);            // error: “pg” is not a pointer to member function
std::invoke(pg, y, 3, 4); // ok
 (since C++23)

Special member functions

Some member functions are special: under certain circumstances they are defined by the compiler even if not defined by the user. They are:

(since C++11)
(since C++11)

Special member functions along with the comparison operators(since C++20) are the only functions that can be defaulted, that is, defined using = default instead of the function body (see their pages for details).

Notes

Feature-test macro Value Std Feature
__cpp_ref_qualifiers 200710L (C++11) ref-qualifiers
__cpp_explicit_this_parameter 202110L (C++23) explicit object parameter (deducing this)

Example

Run this code
#include <exception>
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <utility>
 
struct S
{
    int data;
 
    // simple converting constructor (declaration)
    S(int val);
 
    // simple explicit constructor (declaration)
    explicit S(std::string str);
 
    // const member function (definition)
    virtual int getData() const { return data; }
};
 
// definition of the constructor
S::S(int val) : data(val)
{
    std::cout << "ctor1 called, data = " << data << '\n';
}
 
// this constructor has a catch clause
S::S(std::string str) try : data(std::stoi(str))
{
    std::cout << "ctor2 called, data = " << data << '\n';
}
catch(const std::exception&)
{
    std::cout << "ctor2 failed, string was '" << str << "'\n";
    throw; // ctor's catch clause should always rethrow
}
 
struct D : S
{
    int data2;
    // constructor with a default argument
    D(int v1, int v2 = 11) : S(v1), data2(v2) {}
 
    // virtual member function
    int getData() const override { return data * data2; }
 
    // lvalue-only assignment operator
    D& operator=(D other) &
    {
        std::swap(other.data, data);
        std::swap(other.data2, data2);
        return *this;
    }
};
 
int main()
{
    D d1 = 1;
    S s2("2");
 
    try
    {
        S s3("not a number");
    }
    catch(const std::exception&) {}
 
    std::cout << s2.getData() << '\n';
 
    D d2(3, 4);
    d2 = d1;   // OK: assignment to lvalue
//  D(5) = d1; // ERROR: no suitable overload of operator=
}

Output: 

ctor1 called, data = 1
ctor2 called, data = 2
ctor2 failed, string was 'not a number'
2
ctor1 called, data = 3

Defect reports

The following behavior-changing defect reports were applied retroactively to previously published C++ standards.

DR Applied to Behavior as published Correct behavior
CWG 194 C++98 ambiguous whether a non-static member function
could have the same name as the enclosing class name 		explicit naming restriction added

See also

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